A promising option in energy transition is a more efficient use of heat by linking local heating projects to a regional infrastructure. Although this is technologically feasible and the local officials are often benevolent, such projects only scantily get off the ground. The main challenge appears to be the aspect of the appropriate type of governance for the design and use of regional heat networks. The authors of this article developed a governance-typology for heat networks. The aim of the typology is to help unravel the complexity in the planning of heat infrastructures, taking due account of some legal principles. This typology also enables to categorize heating projects. In this way it is possible to provide some insight in the influence of the stakeholders’ preferences on the governance of heat infrastructures. Barriers and opportunities can be reduced that may hinder or promote the use of waste heat. Local officials may use the information for preventing or breaking through deadlocks in the planning of heat infrastructures.

Do energy cooperatives work together with municipalities in the area of energy and, if this is so, how can this cooperative relationship be interpreted from a public administration perspective? That is the central question of this article. The experiences with cooperation of four frontrunners amongst the energy cooperatives show that in many areas a fruitful cooperative relationship has been developed. In other areas cooperation is lacking because the municipality stands aloof as soon as the energy cooperative provides services to citizens and/or companies or because the purchase of green energy by the municipality from their own energy cooperative cannot simply be carried out. In the development of renewable energy projects it also suits municipalities to be reluctant because they not only promote local renewable energy but are also responsible for the spatial quality. From the perspective of public administration it is striking that the variety of municipal roles increases the complexity of cooperative relationship with energy cooperatives. For energy cooperatives it is difficult to understand that the municipality sometimes behaves like an ally, but can also be reluctant. The variety of the bond between both parties is first of all apparent from the need of an own identity and autonomy in the energy cooperatives. Secondly, two of the four energy cooperatives that were analysed needed support in a financial emergency.

Local authorities know for some time from experience with partnerships with local communities in the area of sustainable development that the urgency of climate change increases and that citizens develop into an equal partner. The convergence of these two motivations asks for an innovative way of acting, in which the performance of local authorities is a crucial factor for the ultimate success of local sustainable energy projects in which citizens are actively involved or will be involved. This article exposes the ways in which local authorities innovate with policy for the support of active citizenship in the production of locally generated sustainable energy. The article also explores the barriers that arise. The authors analyse two cases on different levels of government; ‘The Energy-workplace’ (in the Dutch province Fryslân) and ‘The Armhoede sustainable energy landscape’ (in the Dutch municipality Lochem). The cases show that policy innovations crystallize as well at ‘arm’s length’ distance as in the direct sphere of influence of the (local) authority. However, innovation takes place by the grace of the space in the existing institutional framework and the political (and administrative) system. Formal guidelines (like policy or regulation), persons, and informal practices of the traditional policy implementation may hinder a productive interaction between (active) citizens and government.

This special issue contains five articles based on empirical research into energy transition at the local level. The focus is on the role of local authorities in the energy transition and on partnerships between local authorities (municipalities, provinces, regions) and local communities in the area of sustainable development. The three guest editors have also written an introduction and conclusion for this special issue.

Energy planning and the realization of a new energetic infrastructure has become an issue for many actors. The local setting has become polycentric. Against this background the authors have tried to answer the question of the possible consequences of a polycentric local decision-making arena for the realization of sustainable energy transition, especially the implementation of smart grids. Polycentrism is characterised by configurations of units that are multi-level, multi-purpose, multi-sectoral and multi-functional. The impact of these configurations can be assessed using four criteria: control, efficiency, political representation and local self-determination. The authors used these criteria to analyse two cases. Both cases show that the consequences of polycentrism are variable and differ on the four criteria. The analysis shows tensions in polycentric configurations between control and efficiency on the one hand and local self-determination and political representation on the other. This outcome was a reason for the authors to argue for a better institutional design for the local polycentric arena with the help of the seven ‘rules-in-use’ of Elinor Ostrom. Her design is universal but requires specific local application. In this way more justice can be done to the local circumstances in order to be able to achieve effective results.

In polycentric urban regions one can find different, mutually related cities without a clear centre. In these regions cities cooperate to attract inhabitants and employment, but at the same time they are each other’s competitors. The Randstad (Netherlands) and the Rhine-Ruhr area (Germany) both can be seen as polycentric regions. The authors explore to what extent these regions possess a common identity and common agenda and to what extent this promotes the sustainability and energy transition of these regions. In both regions identity appears to have grown especially at subregional level, by historically developed spatial-economic profiles of the different cities or suburban regions. In addition the cities in these regions more and more wish to distinguish themselves in the area of sustainability. Every city wants to be the smartest, greenest and healthiest, and to be at the forefront in energy transition and climate mitigation. In the Dutch Randstad this competitive drive especially seems to contribute to the realization of sustainability projects at the local level. And that is exactly why regional cooperation is important: to allocate resources as well as possible and to avoid transfer to others. This can be improved by the development of subregional or regional sustainability visions.

Bij bijvoorbeeld de bouw van een gemeentelijk multifunctioneel centrum of de aanschaf van een nieuw computersysteem wordt bijna standaard om een business case gevraagd, om daarmee een zakelijke rechtvaardiging van de te nemen beslissing te verschaffen: nut en noodzaak moeten goed uit de doeken worden gedaan. Dit artikel presenteert de eerste resultaten van een zoektocht naar de (vermeende) kwaliteiten van dit besluitvormingsinstrument. Als ijkpunt voor het praktische gebruik van de business case wordt een nieuw ideaaltype van de business case geconstrueerd. De bestaande definities bieden daarvoor afzonderlijk onvoldoende houvast. Aan de hand van het ideaalmodel wordt vervolgens onderzocht hoe de business case in het publieke debat wordt gebruikt. Het datamateriaal bestaat uit 244 nieuwsberichten uit binnen- en buitenland over uiteenlopende business cases. Het artikel laat zien dat de business case sterk in opkomst is en zijn weg vindt in een divers palet van maatschappelijke thema’s en sectoren. Kwalitatieve argumenten voeren sterk de boventoon ten opzichte van cijfermatige inzichten. De belangrijkste kracht van de business case in het publieke domein ligt in het gegeven dat zowel de belangen van initiatiefnemers en bestuurders als van andere stakeholders worden benoemd.

For this article, part of a series on the future of the discipline in the Netherlands, the author has talked to ten newly appointed professors in the field of public administration. We discussed their background, how they see their role and position within university and society and how they view recent developments in our field of study and our discipline. The young professors share their view on how our discipline could and should develop and what their role will be in this process.

Public-private partnerships (PPPs) have attracted considerable attention in the Netherlands and Flanders, as witnessed by the recent wave of doctoral theses on this topic. This article presents a review of fourteen Dutch and Flemish doctoral theses, published in the period 2012-2015. The main purpose of the review was to examine what the theses’ most important findings and conclusions are. We found that they mainly focus on themes related to effectiveness, transaction costs, and legitimacy. However, although PPPs are often part of a debate between opponents and proponents, none of the studies found convincing arguments for or against the use of PPPs. Instead, most studies stressed the importance of contextual factors for the success of PPPs. The doctoral theses provided various valuable recommendations for practitioners regarding, e.g., the optimization of PPP procurement and the importance of soft management aspects such as collaborative working and process management. We observed that most theses studied PPPs by applying traditional theories and methods and that the majority focused on the early project phases of planning, procurement, and contracting. More research is needed into the later project phases. Finally, since the generalizability of the theses is limited, more programmatic, quantitative, and (international) comparative research is required.

The evaluation purpose is decisive for how a policy evaluation is eventually used and deserves more attention in policy evaluation studies. In the present article, we investigated the motives underpinning concrete evaluations, as outlined in four series of Flemish ministerial policy notes that altogether span a 20-year policy period. The most important key finding is that the evaluation purposes are not sensitive to certain modes, neither are they strongly influenced by reforms and corresponding discourse. Despite the introduction of New Public Management oriented reforms in the Flemish public sector and the financial crisis, the relative share of attention that each of the evaluation purposes get has remained relatively unchanged across time. There seems to be a stable demand for ex ante and ex post evaluations and associated evaluation purposes. The common perception of a trend towards ever more evidence-based policy can hence not be confirmed. Remarkable as well is the low share of attention given to ‘accountability’, at least in discourse.

Policy evaluation has two main functions: it should lead to policy oriented learning and facilitate accountability. Rendering account is considered an important democratic duty but is not very popular with politicians and, hence, public officials. Learning is popular, but in practice it is often difficult to organize or, indeed, witness.
This contribution addresses the question how, in both functions, policy evaluation could be better utilized. As a starting point we the tension between scientific and political rationality and the barriers associated with these different worlds to the development of knowledge.
As indispensable for sound and productive knowledge management in government the article outlines the importance of societal values, policy effectiveness as a research angle, and the independence of researchers at major evaluations. In addition, relevant research questions, high methodological quality, responsiveness, good timing, and clear and accessible reporting are indispensable. It is argued that these are by no means abstract notions but can be brought into real day-to-day practice.
The conclusion is that a knowledge agenda for policy evaluation that is based on the search for effective policy interventions and societal values can help to bridge politics and science.